Introduction

More than one billion servings every day. More than 10,450 beverages consumed every second. $4,347,000,000 in earnings in 2003. Present on all seven continents. Recognized by 94% of the population of the world. How did Coca-Cola grow from its humble roots as a home-brewed Georgia-based patent medicine to be the international soft drink powerhouse that it is today? The answer is technology. Coca-Cola used numerous technologies to achieve its rise to the top of the soft drink industry, defining new technologies and establishing paradigms that popped the status quo like a cap from a soda bottle. Through technology, Coca-Cola perfected Coke as a beverage and spread it throughout the world. Read on to discover the amazing story of technology and Coca-Cola.

A Technological System

In 1886, John Pemberton, an Atlanta pharmacist and Civil War veteran with a passion for making home-made headache cures, brewed the first batch of Coca-Cola. Pemberton first sold his drink at a nearby soda parlor for five cents a glass, selling an average of nine glasses per day. When Coca-Cola started to become popular in Atlanta, a businessman named Asa Candler bought the beverage from Pemberton and started Coca-Cola on its road to success. Candler began an active and innovative marketing campaign that spurred the wide distribution of Coke. Soon Coca-Cola was being bottled, and with the aid of transportation networks, began to creep across the United States and to foreign countries. During World War II, Coca-Cola strengthened its image with the American public and doubled its presence in international markets. The company continued to grow through the use of new media and distribution technologies, achieving the international status that it has today ("Timeline").

Patent Medicines on Tap

The early history of Coca-Cola provides a look into how the company interacted with the technological systems of its day. In 1886, Coca-Cola began as a competitor in the patent medicine market. After the Civil War, America rapidly shifted from an agrarian society to a more urban and industrialized society. This period was known as “the Gilded Age”, and one of its features was the patent medicine industry. Patent medicines were home-brewed medicines, popular due to a hit-or-miss medical profession, the desire of large numbers of Civil War Veterans for self-doses of medicine, and neurosis from rapidly changing lifestyles. Patent medicines featured flamboyant names and advertising, such as “Dr. Pierce’s Pleasant Purgative Pellets”, “Botanic Blood Balm”, and “Copeland’s Cholera Cure.” Outrageous promises were made regarding the effects of these medicines. Coke was no different from other patent medicines. One 1885 advertisement for Coca-Cola read as follows:

Another early venue for Coca-Cola was the soda parlor. During the Gilded Age, soda parlors were ornate beverage bars where customers could buy their favorite soft drinks of the day. They offered as many as 300 different types of beverage syrups, which would be mixed with carbonated water by the “Soda Jerks” behind the counter. One of the selling points of Coca-Cola was that it was more easily prepared than other carbonated beverages, allowing the parlors to serve more customers. Competition in the fountain beverage market was fierce. Coca-Cola grew to prominence by gaining a strong base in the system of soda parlors (Pendergrast 16).

An early soda parlor. Coke was easy to make and could quickly quench the thirsts of a large crowd of customers.

Coca-Motion

Transportation was a large part of the Coca-Cola technological system. As transportation technology improved, Coca-Cola extended its domain further into the world. At first, mule-drawn wagons distributed bottled Coke. Coca-Cola designed its bottling region to be about fifty miles across, because that was the distance that a mule and wagon could cross in a day. Railroad stops were already major transportation hubs. Coca-Cola hired railway employees as commissioned salesmen to sell cases of bottled Coke at railway stations and depots. One especially interesting part of the Coca-Cola transportation system was the Josephine, a New Orleans bottler’s motor boat that delivered Coke to the Bayous. With the invention of the truck, Coca-Cola was able to spread out into more outlets, such as fruit stands, bowling alleys, and cigar stores. Coca-Cola continued its rise to greatness through its pioneering use of transportation systems (Cheatham 100).

A Coca-Cola delivery wagon and truck. As transportation systems grew, Coke was able to increase its range.

Message in a Bottle

The bottling industry played an enormous part in the history of Coca-Cola. In 1894, a Vicksburg, Mississippi candy manufacturer named Joe Biedenharn first bottled Coke for sale in rural areas, but it was not until 1899 that the Coca-Cola Company first signed a bottling contract. Asa Candler, head of Coca-Cola at that time, did not believe that bottling would be successful and sold the bottling rights to two enterprising lawyers, Benjamin Thomas and Joseph Whitehead, for a grand sum of one dollar. Thomas and Whitehead set up bottling plants and made agreements with existing bottlers to bottle Coke. Their investment soon proved sound.

A developed bottling system. As bottling technology improved, Coke spread to new venues.

How did the bottling technological system affect Coca-Cola? At the turn of the century, Bottling was a risky affair, with foot-powered machines, unsanitary conditions, and unreliable seals. As technological bottling innovations developed, such as the Crown Seal, invented in 1892, bottled Coke took the country by storm. By 1920, the U.S census reported that there were over 5,000 bottlers. Bottling allowed Coca-Cola to sell to new markets, such as African-Americans, who had been prohibited from the white-only soda parlors, and women, who did not attend soda parlors as frequently as men. Rural customers could now buy cases of Coke at grocery stores and service stations. Bottling allowed Coca-Cola to move out of the soda parlor and into the world (Pendergrast 75). By 1906, Cuba and Panama became the first countries to bottle Coke outside the United States. Coca-Cola became a worldwide brand name, selling its beverages in almost 200 foreign nations by the start of World War II ("Timeline").

Bottling in mass quantity. As bottling grew, more and more Coke was produced.

Coca-Cola Goes To War

As the United States entered World War II, Coca-Cola president Robert Woodruff issued an order: “We will see that every man in uniform gets a bottle of Coke for five cents, wherever he is and whatever it costs our company” (Pendergrast 199). As a result, Coca-Cola sent 248 employees overseas as “Technical Observers” to bottle Coke behind the front lines. Coca-Cola had already achieved prominent status in America, but the company decided to grow stronger by injecting Coke into another technological system: the military. The role that Coke played in the war was the a major catalyst for its growth from a popular soft drink to an integral part of American life.

The technical observers set up 64 bottling plants on every continent except Antarctica, often facing considerable challenges. Polluted water, supply shortages, disease, labor shortages, and antiquated machinery were only a few of the many hurdles to jump. In some plants, German and Japanese POWs were put to work bottling Coke. War correspondent Howard Fast experienced a treacherous Coca-Cola supply run as his overloaded C46 cargo plane nearly crash landed into desert sand dunes: “Guns they could dump, jeeps, ammo, even a Howitzer…but Coca-Cola bottles? No way. Not if you wanted to keep your points and not become a PFC again” (Pendergrast 205).

Not surprisingly, Coke became a favorite among the soldiers. General Patton and General “Ike” Eisenhower were notorious Coke drinkers. One telegram from Eisenhower in North Africa on June 29th, 1943 requested a shipment of 5,000 tons of equipment and supplies to build 10 local bottling plants that would produce two hundred thousand bottles daily (Pendergrast 203). Testimonials from other soldiers confirmed the high status of Coke. Private M. J. Flatauer wrote:

“To have this drink is like having home brought nearer to you; it’s one of the little things of life that really counts. I can remember being at Ponce de Leon Park, watching the Crackers play baseball as I filled up on Coca-Cola and peanuts. It’s things such as this that all of us are fighting for” (Pendergrast 203).

Coke was popular not only as a war beverage, but also as a war technology. Coca-Cola bottles found uses as electrical insulators, and served to pop the tires of Japenese airplanes when dropped onto airfield runways. Coke Cases were made into stools and mailboxes. But there were more vital uses in the war effort. In the men’s room of the New Hebrides naval officers’ club in Vanuatu, Coca-Cola bottles with multi-colored backlighting created a most unique urinal (Pendergrast 212).

By integrating itself with the military technological system, Coca-Cola succeeded in winning over the hearts of America and her soldiers. In addition, it spread to new international markets as locals discovered the tasty new beverage bottled at the technical observers’ bottling plants. War, a well-established system for the spread of other technologies, had now carried soft drinks on its back. And Coca-Cola was the first to ride (Pendergrast 201-17).

Soldiers enjoying a Coke near the front lines. Coke became an icon through its association with the military system and established itself in new international markets.

Technologies and Innovations

In order to stay ahead of other soft drink manufacturers and distributors, Coca-Cola harnessed and fueled many technological innovations in different arenas. These ranged from pioneering chemical processes for treating and preparing ingredients to developing a unique shape for the Coca-Cola bottle that gave their product an advantage in the marketplace.

The Secret Formula

The Coca-Cola “secret formula” was kept hidden, largely as a publicity stunt suggested by the company president Ernest Woodruff, who thought that maintaining secrecy about the contents of their product would place it above mere sugar water or “belly wash”. There were only two company officials that knew the Coke recipe (which remained locked in a bank vault in Georgia) and they were not allowed to fly on the same airplane (Allen 162). However, Coke was indeed mostly sugar water, and only a few key ingredients kept it apart from other beverages. These key ingredients, Kola (imported from Western Africa on transatlantic ships), Coca leaf extract, and phosphoric acid established Coke’s unique tangy flavor that so many American’s came to adore.

Coke’s recipe and method of manufacturing can be regarded as technology in itself. Not only were the ingredients that went into the “mixing pot” important, but the order in which they reacted was also essential. This rendered the process for making Coke nothing short of chemistry. It seems appropriate then, that Coca-Cola owned and operated several chemical laboratories in the U.S., and employed top chemical engineers. These “Coke scientists” were early pioneers in what was to become the field of food chemistry.

A Nifty Process

The means by which the necessary ingredients were extracted from the Coca leaf and Kola nut were novel and complex. In Coke’s early years, the soft drink contained large amounts of cocaine (estimated at about a “line” per serving) from the Coca leaf, as well as caffeine (estimated at 10 times that of the common Coke today) from the Kola nut. As the federal government began to realize the hazards associated with both substances, restrictions were put into effect that forced the Coca-Cola Company to rethink their beloved recipe. It was unfortunate that they were unable to simply reduce the amount of Kola and Coca in their product. Doing this would have dramatically changed the perfected taste of Coke. Acting quickly to keep up with the market, Coca-Cola executives gave orders to reduce the amount of cocaine and caffeine in their drink to a fraction of the original, while maintaining the same flavor. What resulted were new techniques and chemical processes in extracting elements of food stuffs, and gave rise to the process of decaffeination as we know it today.

Under the leadership of the original Coca-Cola president, Asa Candler, the company worked with Dr. Louis Schafer of Hasslacher Chemical to develop new extraction processes. First, the coca leaves were powdered and mixed with sawdust. This mixture was then soaked in bicarbonate of soda and percolated with toluene, a powerful solvent. It was then steamed and combined with powdered Kola nuts. Mixing with alcohol and pasteurizing resulted in a final product that did not contain either cocaine or much caffeine, but still remained tasty (surprisingly) (Allen 48).

Coke on Acid

Phosphoric acid was the preservative and additive which gave Coke its distinctive bittersweet taste. Coca-Cola was one of the first companies to employ the substance on such a large scale and in such a wide spread consumer product. It had been used previously to preserve medicinal tonics, but Coca-Cola was the first to capitalize on its taste, as well as its function (Allen 9).

Sweet as Sugar

To stay ahead of their competition as sugar prices sky rocketed in the 1930’s, Coca-Cola explored the substance known today as saccharine. This gave the company a startling lead when the American public slowly began to demand “Diet” beverages. Coca-Cola found itself equipped with the know-how to make a good tasting, low calorie drink, long before there was a need.

Coca-Cola was quick to act despite the large size of the company. It resisted unnecessary technological momentum, and thus was able to change their product as a function of the law, the economy, and the people. For example, in Europe, where sugar prices were even higher than they were in America, Coca-Cola employed their research labs to exploit the natural sweetener found in the beet vegetable. The beet was plentiful in Europe after World War II, and cost pennies to the dozen. Because of this innovation, Coca-Cola increased their profit margin by a tremendous amount, allowing them to overpower competition and further capitalize in Europe and the surrounding areas (Allen 173).

A Better Bottle, a Better Can

Chemistry was not the only field in which Coca-Cola excelled to maintain their market leadership. They also explored engineering, as it pertained to the shape and function of the Coca-Cola bottle and cap. Originally, the Coca-Cola bottle had a uniform radius, like other common beverages of the time. But upon studying how Coke was sold to the average consumer, the company found that when consumers reached into the ice chest to pull out a beverage, they had no way of differentiating between a Coke and a competing soft drink. The company soon realized that if they altered the shape of their bottle to the curved shape that still remains today, the consumers would know what they were grabbing as their hand was buried in ice. The new Coca-Cola bottle made it effectively easier to “grab a Coke” (Allen 112).

Shown above is the chronological progression of the design of the Coke bottle. The image on the left is the very first concept of the new bottle. The image on the right shows the progression of the bottle from the days when the hutchinson stopper (described below) was used to modern times.

When Coke was first bottled, the Hutchinson stopper was used to seal the contents. This mechanism was inefficient, and costly to include with every bottle. It would also leak, break, and inconvience the poor thirsy customer who was anxious to open their drink. A breakthrough came with the invention of the “Crown Caps”, by the mechanical engineer named William Painter at the turn of the 18th century. Sealing Coke in bottles with a crown cap led to great advances in product quality, mechanized sterilization, filling, and washing of bottles. It also allowed for the tremendous increase in distribution of the product (Allen 107). Asa Candler was quoted as saying “What are you doing with all that syrup? Pouring it into the Oconee River?” when he ran into a bottler from Athens, Georgia.The sudden increase in distribution of coke astonished Candler, and he was hesitant to believe that it was all truly being sold.

In 1960, Coca-Cola’s first venture into metal cans brought about the steel can as a container for the soft drink. These predecessors to the modern aluminum can were composed of three steel parts: a cylinder and two end caps. At first, this manufacturing approach cost more than the previous glass Coke bottle. These first can containers weighed 0.66 ounce compared to 0.48 ounce of today’s aluminum cans. Unlike the steel can, aluminum cans consisted of only two pieces: an extruded body and a lid. It was estimated that cutting one percent of a can’s mass annually would save the manufacturer twenty million dollars in aluminum. With newer processes that created less massive cans while maintaining structural integrity, Coca-Cola soon adopted the aluminum can to save money. Two-piece aluminum cans debuted in 1958, and the company completely implemented the aluminum can packaging system by 1967 (Hosford 48).

The aluminum Coke cans since their introduction in 1960. As the can was redesigned, it lost mass and gained the ability to be easily manufactured.

While the Coke may seem commonplace, an incredible amount of design and precision went into the can. When the can was pressurized, its wall surfaces contained pressures of up to 90 pounds per square inch (Hosford 48). Another feature was the inward dome at the base of the can body. This curve prevented internal pressure from blowing out the bottom of the can. An empty aluminum can had to have a “column strength” of 250 pounds because cans could not buckle or fail when stacked during the filling and sealing processes. Amazingly the walls of the can measured only 0.003 inches in thickness, less than the thickness of two sheets of standard paper. With such thin walls, the aluminum cans could not have any eccentricities or flaws. Any fault in the can would have caused a moderate load to crush the can (Hosford 50-1). The construction of the can allowed it to withstand great weights relative to the can’s own weight and dimensions. The aluminum can was indeed an amazing engineering feat.

The Six-Pack

Coca-Cola was the first beverage company to sell their product in six-packs. The average American consumer considered Coke a store or parlor product, and never considered stocking the beverage in one’s household refrigerator. Coca-Cola wanted to change this conception and bring Coke into the house. The six-pack, they figured, would do just that. “Jones and his engineers had designed a carry-home carton, a rudimentary six-pack made of heavy, buff colored paper board, in the hope of creating a household market for Coca-Cola” (Allen 134).

On the left is the Coca-Cola's first vision of the "six-pack". The other images show attemps to modify the design.

Ascending with Vending

Vending machines and coolers were a key technology that allowed Coca-Cola to branch out. In 1929, the Glascock Brothers Manufacturing Company of Muncie, Indiana introduced the first mass-produced Coca-Cola cooler at the annual Bottler's Convention. The "Standard" as it was known, held 72 six ounce bottles. In 1934, the Westinghouse Company created a new line of coolers featuring increased storage and insulation that could keep Coke frosty and under 40 degrees F. The first automatic cooler/vending machine was the 1935 Mills model 47. More competitors entered the market after World War II, with Vendo and Vendolater producing new and popular machines.

Vending machines and coolers allowed Coca-Cola to stretch further towards ubiquity. This enabled Coke to be found not only at the restaurant and in the general store, but also on the factory floor and in the gas station. In addition to dispensing ice-cold beverages, the machines featured eye-grabbing advertisements that further served the cause of Coca-Cola. With the aid of vending machines, Coke came to be “within an arm’s length of desire.”

The Coca-Cola vending machines, shown above, enabled Coke to be sold almost everywhere. The first models were expensive and bulky, but still functional.

New Paradigm in Advertising

Coca-Cola has been a pioneer in the advertising industry and set many trends and examples for future conglomerates. The company is known for several firsts in advertising: soft drink ads in national magazines, first to sponsor national radio and television broadcasts, celebrity endorsements, and coupons for free samples (Beverage World 66, 68). Advertising also played a dominant role in the rapid spread of the soft drink and its name.

Previous to Coca-Cola, advertising primarily focused on portraying the product for its practical benefits. If a product made your head-ache go away, advertising provided facts and testimonials, and convinced you that their product was best suited for you. Coca-Cola’s advertising campaigns were radically different. For the first time, advertisements were aimed to associate product with people and their lifestyles. “The amiable side of every new social phenomenon, from the country’s love affair with the car, to its discovery of leisure, to the barbeque tongs and cookout life-styles of the suburbs, was deliberately associated with Coca-Cola” (Allen 8). Coke ads portrayed average Americans doing average things while still enjoying a Coke. Even young lovers began to associate Coke as something that would bring magic to their dates. “When bashful teenagers played spin the bottle it was a Coke bottle they spun” (Allen 8).

Two adolescents enjoy their Cokes as they engage in conversation. As a centerpiece for this advertisement, Coca-Cola hoped their audience would associate love and attraction with their product.

"Coke Is It"

Coca-Cola ads in the United States attracted the American people through the product’s taste, brand name, and social implications. Taste was the main focus of advertising for the first fifty years with slogans such as “Delicious and Refreshing” (1904), “Thirst knows no season” (1922), and “Sign of good taste” (1957) (Beverage World 68). These themes were portrayed throughout Coca-Cola’s advertisements. Choosing the great taste of Coke reflected one’s good taste in life. Around the 50s and 60s, Coca-Cola shifted its advertising campaign toward the product’s retail value and selection. During this time, the company introduced new sizes and packaging for the Coke product such as 10- and 12-ounce bottles. “Things go better with Coca-Cola” said that a Coke makes anything more enjoyable. Advertisements succeeded in attracting consumers by identifying Coca-Cola with everyday activities (68).

Various celebrities endorsed Coca-Cola over the years, such as television stars, comedians, and athletes.

Coke was a pioneer in its use of celebrity endorsements. This tactic began more than a century ago when Lillian Nordic, an opera singer, publicized Coca-Cola. More recently, celebrities such as Bill Cosby, Julius “Dr. J” Erving, Michael Jordan, and Whitney Houston have supported Coca-Cola. Even fantasy characters have appeared on Coca-Cola ads and successfully attracted consumers. “The Coca-Cola Girl” appeared often on posters, calendars, and other Coca-Cola memorabilia. She was a stylish young woman with brunette hair, the type of girl men found appealing and approachable. This girl had certain sex appeal, but she also had the wholesome qualities that mom likes. Advertisements portray “The Coca-Cola Boy” as a healthy-looking young man who was either an aspiring professional or an industrious student. He was the perfect mix of athlete, hard worker, and nice guy like Rob Martello (70).

This classic advertisement features the Coca-Cola Girl saying “Yes” to a refreshing Coke. Coca-Cola successfully utilized sexy characters to sell their soft drink.

Under the direction of Archie Lee’s advertising campaign, Coca-Cola approached a new level of advertising. Lee’s ads were realistic and even surreal. He commissioned the ads that portrayed Santa Claus as a ruddy, jolly white bearded man wearing a red suit. Santa, of course, was enjoying a Coke. It is because of these ads that we now associate this image with Santa. For an advertising campaign to have such an everlasting effect on American folklore was unheard of and would be a marvel even today.

The Coca-Cola Boy offers the intended audience a Coke. How could you say no to this strapping young man?

Free Coke

Coca-Cola used new techniques, such as give-aways and contests to promote their product. Ever since the first days of the company, back when it was a small time operation running from a warehouse in Atlanta, the company was constantly giving away tickets, good for one free taste of Coke at a local soda parlor. One Coca-Cola worker became well known for peddling a Coke cart from town to town, handing out these tickets. This practice was a risky one, and Coca-Cola was one of the very first to try it. The benefits the company reaped cannot be underestimated, however. People were reluctant to try this “bubbling, brown beverage” at first, and only after they received this free taste did it become socially acceptable.

Vouchers for free samples of Coke helped introduce the relatively new beverage to consumers.

Coca-Cola commissioned the production of every day items they termed “dealer helps” such as playing cards, napkins, No. 2 pencils, notebooks, rulers, and even Tiffany style stained-glass lampshades. All these products donned their famous trademark (Allen 7). The company gave these items away to anyone who would take them. “The leading item was Coca-Cola’s famous Japanese fan. Unfolding to reveal a pretty picture on one side and the Coca-Cola logo on the other, the fans created a subliminal, stroboscopic message whenever a hot, thirsty customer fluttered one in front of her face” (Allen 70). Coca-Cola even published a magazine geared toward house wives that advised on the proper ways of having guests, carrying out daily activities like cooking and cleaning, and of course serving ice cold Coke. Coca-Cola truly became a household name, in every sense of the word.

"Gee-Whizzers"

Coca-Cola realized the importance of selling their product to the American public. Thus, it created a statistical department whose function was to track company progress and figure out ways of speeding it up. But another benefit that came from this department was their “gee-whizzes”, or fun facts about the soft drink industry that Coca-Cola officials used to sell their beverage. The American public was fascinated to learn how many times the world could be circled if all the Coca-Cola bottles were lined up end to end (Allen 11), or that it would take 32,000 acres to store 24-bottle cartons of all the Coke in the U.S. (Allen 175).

By Land, Sea, and Air(waves)

Coca-Cola quickly adopted emerging technologies. The soft drink company gained a widespread reputation for their use of Billboards (first called a 24 sheet poster due to the fact that they were made of 24 sheets of normal poster size paper), a new and blossoming avenue of advertisements. Just as highways were becoming popular, the company realized the billboard’s potential for advertising, and began to gear their marketing campaign behind these huge street-side signs. From the very start of this new advertising channel, Coca-Cola had more billboards up than any other company in the United States. They even had 3-dimensional billboards that displayed actual liquid being poured from a faucet into a glass. Coca-Cola was first to use dirigibles and banner planes as well, and found these methods a perfect way for advertising to beach and ball game fanatics (Allen 77).

Just as the company was quick to exploit billboards, they also realized the potential of the radio for similar purposes. The company held competitions, in which thousands of housewives wrote essays explaining the ways in which Coca-Cola changed their lives. The winning entry by Miss Millspaugh, chosen by Coca-Cola top executives, was entitled “Six Keys to Coca-Cola’s Popularity.” Company officials announced Miss Millspaugh as the winner over the radio and awarded her the relatively large sum of $10,000 (Allen 175). This advertising tactic was just another example of Coca-Cola’s innovative methods of marketing their brand. Coca-Cola dared to venture where no other company did, and their risks paid off with a dominating market share in the soft drink industry and a share of every American’s heart.

Conclusion

The Coca-Cola company raced to the forefront of the beverage world through its innovative use of technology to spread and develop Coke. Through early forays in the field of medicine and advances in transportation and distribution systems, Coke grew out of its humble Atlanta roots and became part of larger systems. Coca-Cola discovered new techniques for producing Coke that allowed it win popularity and outproduce the rest of the soft drink industry. Innovative uses of new media and advertising kept Coke in the hearts and minds of the world. By infusing Coke into technological systems, creating new technologies, and redefining how existing technologies were used, Coca-Cola achieved greatness. What does the future hold? Through technology, Coca-Cola plans to ensure that it will be "Always Coca-Cola."

Bibliography

Allen, Frederick. Secret Formula: How Brilliant Marketing and Relentless Salesmanship Made Coca-Cola the Best-Known Product in the World. New York: HarperCollins, 1994.

Beverage World. Coke’s First 100 Years … and a look into the future. Shepherdsville, KY: Keller, 1986.

Cheatham, Mike. “Your Friendly Neighbor”:the Story of Georgia’s Coca-Cola Bottling Families. Macon, GA: Mercer Univ. Press, 1999.

Coke Machines. 22 Apr. 2004 <http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Crater/7654/machines.htm>

Hosford, William F. and John L. Duncan. “The Aluminum Beverage Can.” Scientific America Sept. 1994: 48-53.

Pendergrast, Mark. For God, Country and Coca-Cola: the Unauthorized History of the Great American Soft Drink and the Company That Makes It. New York: Collier, 1993.

Timeline. 3 May 2004. <http://heritage.coca-cola.com/heritage_index.html>

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